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Globus sensation is a functional esophageal disorder primarily characterized by a sensation of a lump or foreign body in the throat. It is often described as a painless sensation of something in the throat that can neither be swallowed nor coughed up; some people describe a feeling of tightness in the throat. Symptoms may be…

Functional heartburn (FH) is an esophageal functional disorder that cannot be explained by physiological esophageal reflux or organic esophageal disease. It is clinically characterized by episodes of retrosternal (or subxiphoid) burning discomfort. In Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), this condition falls within the categories of “heartburn” and “epigastric discomfort (caodings).” TCM Pattern Differentiation and Medication Reference…

Esophageal cancer is a malignant tumor that originates in the esophagus. Squamous cell carcinoma is the most common type, and progressive difficulty swallowing is its main clinical symptom. Based on histopathology, it can be classified into three types: squamous cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, and undifferentiated carcinoma. In traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), this condition falls within the…

Constipation is characterized by a reduced frequency of bowel movements, hard stools, and/or difficulty passing stool. A reduced frequency means fewer than 3 bowel movements per week. Difficulty passing stool includes straining, difficulty passing stool, a feeling of incomplete evacuation, prolonged time spent defecating, and the need for manual assistance. Chronic constipation lasts for at…

Acute cholecystitis is an acute inflammatory condition of the gallbladder that may result from cystic duct obstruction, chemical irritation, bacterial infection, and other causes. Clinical manifestations may include fever, right upper abdominal pain, or distending pain in the right hypochondrium radiating to the shoulder and back, accompanied by nausea and vomiting; mild jaundice, a positive…

Primary liver cancer refers to a malignant tumor that originates in liver cells or intrahepatic bile duct cells, rather than spreading to the liver from cancer in another organ or tissue; it is therefore called primary liver cancer. In traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), liver cancer falls within the categories of “积聚” (abdominal masses), “胁痛” (hypochondriac…

Hepatic cirrhosis (HC) is a chronic, progressive, diffuse inflammatory and fibrotic liver disease caused by various factors. Under the repeated or persistent effects of causative factors, liver cells undergo diffuse degeneration, necrosis, and apoptosis. Surviving liver cells regenerate to form regenerative nodules, while diffuse connective tissue proliferation forms fibrous septa. These processes ultimately divide and…

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a form of metabolic stress-related liver injury closely associated with insulin resistance (IR) and genetic susceptibility. Its pathological changes resemble those of alcoholic liver disease (ALD), but affected individuals have no history of excessive alcohol consumption. The disease spectrum includes nonalcoholic simple fatty liver (NAFL), nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), and…

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a common functional bowel disorder characterized primarily by abdominal pain or discomfort that may improve after a bowel movement and is often accompanied by changes in bowel habits. There are no structural changes or biochemical abnormalities that can explain the symptoms. IBS is generally classified as diarrhea-predominant, constipation-predominant, mixed, or…

Malabsorption syndrome (MAS) refers to the clinical symptoms and signs resulting from nutrient deficiencies caused by impaired uptake and transport in the gastrointestinal tract of one or more adequately digested nutrients, including proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, and trace elements. It is worth noting that digestion and absorption are closely linked processes. Although they differ pathophysiologically,…

Lower gastrointestinal bleeding (LGIB) is defined as bleeding originating distal to the ligament of Treitz. Acute LGIB refers to bleeding occurring within the past 3 days and may be accompanied by hemodynamic instability, anemia, and/or a need for transfusion. Chronic LGIB refers to bleeding that takes several days or longer to pass from the lesion…

Incomplete intestinal obstruction refers to impaired passage of intestinal contents, with only some contents able to pass the point of obstruction. Clinical manifestations include abdominal pain of varying severity and character, abdominal distension, vomiting, and decreased or absent passage of gas and stool. It is a common acute abdominal condition. In traditional Chinese medicine (TCM),…